Prior to working on living beings or attempting more complex procedures as in surgery, the student needs to develop fundamental dexterity or psychomotor skills. Inanimate objects provide a non-stressful, time-efficient and highly effective means of obtaining these skills. Some of these can also be considered as a means of surgical instruction and may be listed in that section. Following the list of specific alternatives, there is a section on literature that either explains or evaluates the alternatives or provides additional information on the subject of skills development.
If you are aware of other examples you believe to be important to include here, please send the information to HEVM for consideration.
New addition(s):
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Available from Limbs & Things.
From Web site: A comprehensive trainer for teaching all surgical knot tying techniques…
Suture training pad
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Available through Veterinary Simulator Industries Ltd.
Skin Suture Pattern Simulator
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Produced by Surgical Simulators.
You may be able to borrow this from InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
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Produced by Delletec Surgical Procedure Simulators.
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Produced by Rescue Critters!.
You may be able to borrow this from InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
Adjustable Tissue Tray Package
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For suturing skin incisions. The incision can be adjusted to create different degrees of tension.
Produced by Simulab Corporation.
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Available through Paws 2 Claws™.
From Web site: A great tool to learn or practice sutures on. One side includes a representation of a canine elbow bone.
You may be able to borrow this from Animalearn
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Produced by Simulab Corporation.
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For practicing blood vessel ligation.
Produced by Rescue Critters!.
5-layer RealLayer RealFlow Simulated Tissue Pad
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For hemostasis and suturing. This is one of several simulators for practicing suturing.
Produced by SurgiReal.
Hemostasis model
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By Olsen et al 1996: Results of this study indicate that the hemostasis model was as effective as live animals for teaching the basic skills involved in blood vessel ligation. The students’ opinions regarding the use of properly designed inanimate models for teaching these skills were dramatically changed.
Foam hemostasis model
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By Smeak et al 1991: Students using simulators performed ligation with significantly more accuracy and tended to be more expeditious at this task.
Hemostasis simulator
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See Giusto et al 2015 for details and results of assessment.
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Produced by Simulab Corporation.
From Web site: The laparotomy model simulates a partial abdomen and includes skin, subcutaneous fat, fascia, preperitoneal fat, and peritoneum.
Hollow Organ Simulator
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Produced by Surgical Simulators.
Reviewed by Smeak et al 1994.
You may be able to borrow this from InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
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Produced by SurgiReal.
This is a small intestine simulator for the practice of end to end, side to side, end to side and functional end to end anastomotic techniques.
Double Layer Bowel 20mm Outside Diameter
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Available from Limbs & Things.
From Web site: Realistic two layer bowel simulation for training in anastomosis techniques. … Realistic tissue response … Will withstand a fluid flush test to demonstrate integrity of the anastomosis
You may be able to borrow this from InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
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Produced by Simulab Corporation.
From Web site: The Double-layered Intestine is a bowel section with two distinct layers for increased realism. Use this product to practice suturing, anastomosis, and stapling.
Vascular Access Training Models
Canine foreleg model |
Canine head and foreleg model |
Produced and sold by the University of California School of Veterinary Medicine (order form on this page). Used for training in the art of vascular access (phlebotomy).
You may be able to borrow this from InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
Canine Leg Vascular Access Simulator
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Vascular access simulator for the dog.
Produced by SurgiReal.
Horse jugular vein access model
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Described and evaluated in Eichel et al 2013.
Equine Vascular Access Simulator
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Vascular access simulator for the horse; jugular and facial arteries.
Produced by SurgiReal.
Equine phlebotomy and intramuscular injection simulator
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Vascular and muscle access for the horse.
This simulator is described in by Williamson et al 2016.
Intravenous cannulation simulator
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Students using this easily made simulator showed more skill in cannulating the vein of a live animal than those not practicing on the simulator first, as reported by Perez-Rivero and Rendón-Franco, 2011.
Alpaca vascular access
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This model was evaluated by Rousseau et al.
Dog cadaver leg for venipuncture
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Galle & Bubna-Littitz 1983 used a formalin-fixed front leg of a dog and replaced the cephalic vein with a silicon tube containing artificial blood. This was then used to teach students the art of venipuncture. With ethically-sourced cadavers, this could be an effective means of training.
Fine needle aspiration device
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Developed by Simpson and Meuten, 1992. This simple device, described in the publication, is used to contain fresh organ material (obtained from the necropsy lab) for teaching students the art of fine needle aspiration.
DASIE™ Dog Abdominal Surrogate for Instructional Exercise
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See Holmberg, et al 1993 for evaluation.
You may be able to borrow this from InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
Dog abdomen, ovariohysterectomy simulator
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This appears to be an effective means of preparing the student for ovariohysterectomy in the living animal.
Developed by University of Sydney, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Sydney, Australia with Studio Kite; see news item or article by Woon, 2011 for more information.
TheMOOSE, ovariohysterectomy simulator
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This is described and evaluated by Fahie, et al., 2016.
Spay Training Manikin (ovariohysterectomy)
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Produced by Vet Effects Incorporated.
From Web site: The manikin allows the student to recreate a lifelike, step by step training, from incision to sutures.
Manikin – Spay Dog (ovariohysterectomy)
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Available through Paws 2 Claws™.
From Web site: The Spay Manikin was designed by Paws 2 Claws to be hands on training aid in learning the surgical procedures and techniques of spaying a dog, from intubation to the final sutures.
You may be able to borrow this from Animalearn
Neuter Training Manikin (castration)
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Produced by Vet Effects Incorporated.
From Web site: The manikin allows the student to recreate a lifelike, step by step training, from incision to sutures.
Manikin – Neuter Dog (castration)
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Available through Paws 2 Claws™.
From Web site: The Neuter Manikin was designed by Paws 2 Claws to be hands on training aid in learning the surgical procedures and techniques of neutering a dog, from intubation to the final sutures.
You may be able to borrow this from Animalearn
Various simulators at Utrecht University
Cat castration |
Dog castration |
Tracheostomy |
Venipuncture |
Drs van Nimwegen and Kirpensteijn at Utrecht University have developed a psychomotor skills program which includes various skills models or simulators. Although the simulators may appear ‘primitive’, they should be useful in developing initial dexterity for a wide range of procedures including cat castration, pre-scrotal castration of the dog, tracheostomy tube placement, pedicle ligation in ovariohysterectomy, esophageal feeding tube placement, venipuncture, tumor excision.
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Produced by Rescue Critters!.
From Web site: …performing chest tube placements, and simulating emergency trauma by aspirating air and fluid from the thoracic cavity.
Training model for small animal thoracocentesis and chest tube thoracostomy
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By Williamson & Fio Rito, 2014: A small animal thoracocentesis and chest tube thoracostomy model has been developed, that allows repetitive practice in a safe, standardised environment. … Student feedback indicated a high degree of satisfaction with the model and the laboratory experience, high perceived value of the case studies in improving learning, and increased confidence to perform the procedures under supervision. This model can replace the use of live animals while students are practising these procedures, improving their technique, and learning the appropriate safeguards used to prevent injuries such as pulmonary trauma.
See Williamson, 2014 for critical evaluation.
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Produced by Rescue Critters!.
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Produced by Rescue Critters!
From Web site: Representations of the trachea, esophagus and epiglottis are all realistically crafted into this dog bust. It also features an airway with working lungs.
You may be able to borrow this from Animalearn, InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
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Produced by Nasco.
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Produced by Rescue Critters!. They also produce other simulators for initial aid training.
From Web site: Like its canine counterpart CCJ, Critical Care Fluffy is a full-sized, realistic feline mannikin.
You may be able to borrow this from Animalearn or InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
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Produced by Rescue Critters!. They also produce other simulators for initial aid training.
From Web site: …engineered as a complete emergency room veterinary training mannikin.
You may be able to borrow this from Animalearn or InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
Low-fidelity canine models for intubation and urinary catheterization
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Described and evaluated in Aulmann et al 2015.
Nasogastric Intubation and Transtracheal Aspiration Model (horse)
Produced by Anatomoulds.
Human patient simulator
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Modell et al 2014 used a human patient simulator from CAE Healthcare to train veterinary medical students in anesthesia and complications that may occur. They concluded that …the human patient simulator was a valuable learning tool for students of veterinary medicine. It was exciting for the students to work with, made them deal with ‘real-life’ scenarios, permitted them to learn without subjecting live patients to complications, enabled them to retrace their steps when their therapy did not correct the simulated patient’s problems, and facilitated correlation of their basic science knowledge with clinical data, thus accelerating their ability to handle complex clinical problems in healthy and diseased patients.
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Developed by Dr Daniel Fletcher at Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine. There also is a similar simulator for cats. All the simulators are stated to be available for sharing with other institutions. The dog simulator is described further, along with a video demonstration, in a news article by Dawn M. Smith, 2011 and by Fletcher et al 2012.
Flexible and Rigid Endoscopic training Device (FRED)
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Developed by Jacqueline C Whittemore, DVM, PhD, DACVIM at the University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine. See Kennedy, 2009 for news item.
Simuldog
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Development, use and validation reported in Usón-Gargallo et al 2014.
Additional evaluation by Pérez-Merino et al 2018.
Canine Laparoscopic Ovariectomy Model
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Described by Chen et al 2019.
Canine Laparoscopic Simulator
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Development, use and validation reported in Usón-Gargallo et al 2014.
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Available from SynDaver Labs.
From Web site: The SynDaver Synthetic Canine is a futuristic animal model designed to replace live animals and animal cadavers in veterinary surgical training. Based on 20+ years of SynDaver research, this model is made from water, fiber and salt. She is a life saver, but she is not alive. She breathes and bleeds just like a real dog. She has individual muscles, bones, and organs – and can be operated on repeatedly without risking a live animal.
Joint Injection Simulator
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Described and evaluated in Fox et al 2013.
Cadaver model for arthrocentesis
Described and evaluated in MacIver & Johnson 2015.
Canine pelvic limb model for stifle joint evaluation
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Described and evaluated in Troy & Bergh 2015.
Bovine rectal palpation simulator
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Uses haptic technology. Developed at the University of Glasgow Veterinary School, as reported by Baillie et al 2005 and validated in Baillie et al 2005, and Kinnison et al 2009. An automated version was developed and evaluated by Baillie et al 2010.
Hereford Model Dystocia Simulator
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Report on its use and instructional evaluation in Read & Baillie 2013.
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Its use and evaluation were reported in Bossaert et al 2009.
Equine Palpation/Colic Simulator
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For practicing rectal palpation in the female horse.
Available through Veterinary Simulator Industries Ltd.
Horse Ovary Palpation Simulator
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As reported by Crossan et al.
Canine prostate palpation simulator
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Described and evaluated in Capilé et al 2015.
Male Urinary Catheter Training Manikin
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Available through Paws 2 Claws™.
From Web site: This manikin was created to simulate the urinary catheterization procedure, along with collecting urine, emptying the bladder or taking urine samples.
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Available through Paws 2 Claws™.
From Web site: This manikin is designed with an external and internal urogenital structure with the purpose of performing two separate procedures; cystocentesis and cystostomy.
There is also the Cysto Dog Manikin.
Dental model for training veterinary and veterinary nursing students
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This is a being used at the Royal Veterinary College …to facilitate the teaching, learning and assessment of basic dental skills for veterinary nursing and veterinary medicine students.
An evaluation of it was reported by Lumbis et al 2012.
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For intravascular access practice in the rabbit.
Produced by NPM SIKO.
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For practicing endotracheal intubation, cardiac puncture, blood collection from the saphenous vein in the rat.
Produced by Rescue Critters!.
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From Web site: …silicone rat designed for use on medical, pharmaceutical and veterinary training courses.
You may be able to borrow this from Norecopa or InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
Koken Rat
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For practicing restraint, peroral dosing, intravenous vascular access through tail, endotracheal intubation in the rat.
You may be able to borrow this from Norecopa or InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page)
There is purported to be a Koken Rabbit which is used for practicing restraint, peroral dosing, vascular access using the auricular vein, endotracheal intubation, urine collection through urethral catheterization. You may be able to borrow this from InterNICHE (follow instructions on their loan page).
Canine eye model for ophthalmoscopy
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Although ophthalmoscopy is not particularly invasive and student or staff companion animals can be used without any harm to them, this model may at least allow students to develop the psychomotor skills necessary without the added struggle of a moving “patient”.
Described and evaluated in Nibblett et al 2015.
Bovine Birthing and Ultrasound Simulator
Bovine Injection Simulator
Calf Simulator
The following includes literature cited above or which is relevant to the development of various skills, including outcome assessment. The titles are linked either to a publicly available copy of the document or to a digital object identifier. If there are illustrations which may be publicly viewable, these are also linked, but there is no guarantee that they would be viewable across all platforms.
Abutarbush, Sameeh M.; Naylor, Jonathan M.; Parchoma, Gale; D’Eon, Marcel; Petrie, Lyall and Carruthers, Terry 2006 Evaluation of traditional instruction versus a self-learning computer module in teaching veterinary students how to pass a nasogastric tube in the horse Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 33(3):447-454
Conclusion – computer-assisted learning is an acceptable and effective method of training students to pass an NG tube with potential welfare, proficiency, and knowledge advantages.
You may be able to obtain a copy of the paper from: ResearchGate
Allen, S.W. and Chambers, J.N. 1997 “Computer-assisted instruction of fundamental surgical motor skills.” Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 24(1):2-5
Although I have listed this as an alternative, it did not replace animal use, rather just reinforced skills that could be obtained by inanimate objects in the first place.
A computer-assisted learning program, ‘The Surgical Techniques Auto-Tutorial Program,’ was developed for use as an introductory training tool of fundamental surgical motor skills. The program was well received by veterinary medical students. Although computer-assisted instruction was as effective as traditional methods in helping students develop and retain some skill, direct instructor contact was necessary for the retention of other stills such as knot tying. When followed by instructor contact laboratories, allowing feedback and reinforcement of operative skills, computer-assisted instruction was a helpful introductory training tool for the development of fundamental surgical motor skills.
Annandale, Annett; Annandale, C. Henry; Fosgate, Geoffrey T. and Holm, Dietmar E. 2018-06-01 Training method and other factors affecting student accuracy in bovine pregnancy diagnosis Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 45(2):224-231.
Annandale, Annett; Scheepers, Elrien and Fosgate, Geoffrey T. 2020 The effect of an ovariohysterectomy model practice on surgical times for final-year veterinary students’ first live-animal ovariohysterectomies Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 47(1):44-55
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…students practicing an OVH on the model felt more confident (92%) and less stressed (73%) when performing their first live-animal OVH. Results suggest that the canine OVH model may be helpful as a clinical training tool and we concluded that the OVH model was effective at decreasing students’ first OVH surgical time.
Auer, Jörg Andreas 1994 Veterinär-Chirurgische Ausbildung am Simulator ALTEX 11(1):44-46
Discusses the use of simulators for development of basic surgical skills at the Veterinary Surgery Clinic of the University of Zürich. In German with an English summary.
Aulmann, Maria; März, Maren; Burgener, Iwan A.; Alef, Michaele; Otto, Sven and Mülling, Christoph K.W. 2015 Development and evaluation of two canine low-fidelity simulation models Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 42(2):151-160
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We thereby conclude that low-fidelity models can be as effective as high-fidelity models for clinical skills training.
You may be able to obtain a copy of the paper from: ResearchGate
Baillie, S. “Utilization of simulators in veterinary training” 1-15 pp
Baillie, Sarah; Mellor, Dominic J.; Brewster, Stephen A. and Reid, Stuart W.J. 2005 Integrating a bovine rectal palpation simulator into an undergraduate veterinary curriculum Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 32(1):79-85
Baillie, Sarah; Crossan, Andrew; Brewster, Stephen; Mellor, Dominic and Reid, Stuart 2005 Validation of a bovine rectal palpation simulator for training veterinary students Studies in Health Technology and Informatics 111:33-36
The subsequent performance in the real task, when examining cows for the first time, was assessed with the results showing a significantly better performance for the simulator group.
Baillie, Sarah; Crossan, Andrew; Brewster, Stephen A.; May, Stephen A. and Mellor, Dominic J. 2010 Evaluating an automated haptic simulator designed for veterinary students to learn bovine rectal palpation Simulation in Healthcare 5(5):261-266
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The automated simulator equipped students with useful skills for examining cows. In addition, a simulator that does not need the presence of an instructor will increase the availability of training for students and be a more sustainable option for institutions.
Baillie, Sarah; Christopher, Rachel; Catterall, Alison J.; Kruydenberg, Adam; Lawrenson, Karen; Wonham, Katharine; Kilfeather, Peter and Warman, Sheena 2020-07-01 Comparison of a Silicon Skin Pad and a Tea Towel as Models for Learning a Simple Interrupted Suture Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 47(4):516-522
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In conclusion, the tea towel was as effective as the silicon skin pad, but it was cheaper, simpler to make, and the materials were more readily available. In addition, both models were used effectively with an instruction booklet illustrating the value of self-directed learning to complement taught classes.
Baillie, Sarah; Decloedt, Annelies and Londgren, Molly Frendo 2022-12-01 Designing Flipped Classrooms to Enhance Learning in the Clinical Skills Laboratory Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 49(6):699-704
A well-designed flipped classroom motivates learners by including different elements such as quality educational media (eg, videos), the opportunity to self-assess, and well-defined connections to relevant knowledge and skills. Student engagement with the flipped material can be promoted through different strategies such as clear communication to manage student expectations and adapting the delivery of the face-to-face component. Finally, gathering feedback and evaluating the initiative are important to inform future improvements.
Ball, Leslie and Scott, James A. 1964 An artificial uterus for laboratory instruction Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 144(3):264-265
Describes a model which can be built to teach palpation in the cow.
Banse, Heidi E.; McMillan, Chantal J.; Warren, Amy L.; Hecker, Kent G.; Wilson, Bethan; Skorobohach, Brian J.; Carter, Renee T.; Lewin, Andrew C.; Kondro, Doug A.; Ungrin, Mark D.; Dorosz, Samuel G.; Baker, Rose E.; Dehghanpir, Shannon D.; Grandt, Beth B.; Mitchell, Lorrie K. Hale and Anderson, Sarah J. 2021-10-01 Development of and Validity Evidence for a Canine Ocular Model for Training Novice Veterinary Students to Perform a Fundic Examination Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 48(5):620-628.
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Although ophthalmoscopy is not particularly invasive and student or staff companion animals can be used without any harm to them, this model may at least allow students to develop the psychomotor skills necessary without the added struggle of a moving “patient”.
These findings suggest that this canine model may be an effective tool to train students to perform fundoscopy.
Beaulieu, Alexandra; Nykamp, Stephanie; Phillips, John; Arroyo, Luis G.; Koenig, Judith and zur Linden, Alex 2022-08-01 Development and Validation of a Three-Dimensional Printed Training Model to Teach Ultrasound-Guided Injections of the Cervical Articular Process Joints in Horses Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 49(4):442-453
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…we successfully developed a 3D printed model of an equine cervical articular process joint, partially demonstrated the construct validity of the model, and proved the face and content validity of this new training tool.
Bogert, K.; Platt, Simon; Haley, Allison; Kent, Marc; Edwards, Gaylen; Dookwah, H. and Johnsen, Kyle 2016 Development and use of an interactive computerized dog model to evaluate cranial nerve knowledge in veterinary students Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 43(1):26-32
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…we have developed a computerized simulated dog head that can exhibit cranial nerve dysfunctions and respond to specific testing procedures in a clinically accurate manner. … In an experiment conducted with 97 freshman veterinary students who had recently been taught cranial nerve anatomy and function, we found that examination performance decreased with the need for interactivity compared to memorization of fact, while satisfaction increased. Students were less likely to identify the correct disorder when they had to conduct the examination of the virtual dog themselves, revealing an inadequacy in traditional neuroanatomical teaching. However, students overwhelmingly supported the use of interactive question for assessment. Interestingly, performance on text-based questions did not correlate significantly with interactive or video questions. The results have implications for veterinary teaching and assessment within the classroom and in clinical environments.
Bossaert, Philippe; Leterme, Lieselot; Caluwaerts, Tim; Cools, Steven; Hostens, Miel; Kolkman, Iris and de Kruif, Aart 2009 Teaching transrectal palpation of the internal genital organs in cattle Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 36(4):451-460
Results suggest that Breed’n Betsy cannot fully replace training in live cows, but may be a valuable addition to the classical teaching method. Suggestions for future improvement are made.
The Breed’n Betsy Web site is http://www.breednbetsy.com.au/.
Braid, Helen R. 2022-05-01 The Use of Simulators for Teaching Practical Clinical Skills to Veterinary Students — A Review Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 50(3):184-194
The reviewed articles revealed that there are a number of simulators currently available to veterinary educators, that simulators can enhance student skills and provide an alternative learning environment without the need for live animal and/or cadaver use, and that they usually receive positive feedback from the students who use them. There appears to be a bias towards small animal simulators — however, some skills that are developed through the use of small animal or table-top models will be transferrable to other species. The majority of large animal simulators focus on bovine rectal palpation and/or pregnancy diagnosis.
Brisson, Brigitte A.; Dobberstein, Rachel; Monteith, Gabrielle and Jones-Bitton, Andria 2023-06-01 Excellent Agreement of In-Person Scoring versus Scoring of Digitally Recorded Simulated Suture Skills Examination Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 50(3):379-383
The excellent agreement between in-person and digital assessment suggests that digitally recording skills examinations can provide adequate suturing skills assessment, presenting several benefits. Digitally recorded assessment allows for anonymity, which can reduce assessor bias/favoritism, provide a record of performance that students can review and critically self-reflect upon, and reduce the number of in-person examiners required to complete surgical skills examinations. Additionally, digitally recorded assessment could become an option for students who experience anxiety performing a skills exam in the presence of an examiner.
Burns, Jeffrey P.; Reardon, Frank E. and Truog, Robert D. 1994 Using newly deceased patients to teach resuscitation procedures The New England Journal of Medicine 331(24):1652-1655
The authors discuss the ethical and legal aspects of this situation, and offer criteria for keeping it a legitimate form of training for the benefit of human society. There is no reason why similar principles could not be applied in veterinary medicine with respect to using new deceased patients for training purposes.
A total of 449 questionnaires were mailed in the summer of 1992, and responses were received from 353 training programs (79 percent). Of these, 136 (39 percent) described using newly deceased patients in the teaching of resuscitation procedures; this finding is similar to the results of another recent survey… The highest proportions of respondents who allowed procedures to be performed on patients after their death were found among the emergency-medicine programs (63 percent) and the neonatal critical care programs (58 percent). Forty percent of programs that used this teaching technique reported using it 10 or more times per year. Tracheal intubation was overwhelmingly the most common procedure practiced, but other procedures, including the placement of central venous catheters, surgical venous cutdown, thoracotomy, pericardiocentesis, cricothyrotomy, liver biopsy, and intraosseous needle placement, were also reported.
Capilé, Karynn V.; Campos, Gabriela M.B.; Stedile, Rafael and Oliveira, Simone T. 2015 Canine prostate palpation simulator as a teaching tool in veterinary education Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 42(2):146-150
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…our aim was to develop a canine prostate palpation simulator to provide students with the opportunity to learn the prostate palpation technique in dogs and to assess their opinion of this simulator as a teaching tool. The inner part of the canine mannequin contains a rotation system with three types of prostates that can be exchanged during the exam. … We conclude that the simulator can help students to develop clinical skills for prostate palpation in dogs.
You may be able to obtain a copy of the paper from: ResearchGate
Carroll, Hillary S.; Lucia, Tomasina A.; Farnsworth, Chelsea H.; Hinckley, Michael M.; Zeugschmidt, Eryn L. and Cary, Julie A. 2016 Development of an optional clinical skills laboratory for surgical skills training of veterinary students Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 248(6):624-628
During each OCSL session, a variety of surgical training models and cadavers were available for students to practice with. Simple models for students to practice suturing, pedicle ligation, and IV catheter placement were made from surplus hospital stock and inexpensive materials readily available from hardware and craft stores. In addition, 5 to 7 whole or prosected cadavers were typically available for student use during each session. Large animal cadavers were primarily obtained through donation to the veterinary teaching hospital. Canine and feline cadavers were obtained through the CVM’s contract with animal control agencies in Washington state under which animals judged to be unadoptable by individual animal control agencies were euthanized at the agencies in accordance with AVMA and institutional animal care and use guidelines and transported to WSU CVM fresh-frozen. Fresh cadavers from other teaching laboratories were also used when available. All cadaver use adhered to AVMA and institutional animal care and use guidelines for humane use of animals. No animals were euthanized specifically for use in the OCSL.
Chen, Chi-Ya; Elarbi, Mustafa; Ragle, Claude A. and Fransson, Boel A. 2019 Development and evaluation of a high-fidelity canine laparoscopic ovariectomy model for surgical simulation training and testing Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 254(1):113-123
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Results suggested the [simulated laparoscopic ovariectomy] model may be a useful surgical training tool. Further studies are needed to confirm usefulness of the model in veterinary laparoscopy training.
Cosford, Kevin; Hoessler, Carolyn and Shmon, Cindy Evaluation of a first-year veterinary surgical skills laboratory: A retrospective review Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 46(4):423-428.
Cosford, Kevin; Briere, Jennifer; Ambros, Barbara; Beazley, Shannon and Cartwright, Carolyn 2020-04-01 Effect of instructional format on veterinary students’ task performance and emotional state during a simulation-based canine endotracheal intubation laboratory: Handout versus video Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 47(2):239-247
Video instructions may be associated with higher performance scores than handout instructions during endotracheal intubation simulation training.
Crossan, Andrew; Brewster, Stephen; Reid, Stuart and Mellor, Dominic Comparison of simulated ovary palpation training over different skill levels 1-5 pp University of Glasgow
This paper describes an initial attempt to compare performance levels of users of different skill levels on the Glasgow Horse Ovary Palpation Simulator (HOPS). … Traditionally, students are taught horse ovary palpation through books, lectures, and practical experience. … As ovary palpation is a stressful procedure for the horse, ethical considerations limit a student’s opportunity to gain experience. A horse ovary examination can be difficult for a veterinary student to perform, but can also be fatal to the horse if performed incorrectly.
da Costa, Bruna N.; Sousa, Marlos G.; Tanji, Fernanda N.; Ulanin, Mariana; Wolf, Marcela and Stedile, Simone T.O. 2022-05-01 The Use of 3-D Models of Echocardiographic Imaging Planes for Teaching Echocardiography Techniques for Use in Dogs and Cats Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 50(3):208-220
The 3-D models facilitated, and significantly improved, the identification of cardiac structures and disease-associated abnormalities, and the learning process in general. Additionally, the models seemed to provide greater student motivation for studying echocardiography.
Dankelman, Jenny 2008 Surgical simulator design and development World Journal of Surgery 32(2):149-155.
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de Solis, Cristobal Navas; Gilmour, Lindsey J.; Coleman, Michelle C.; Watts, Ashlee E.; Bevevino, Kari E.; Glass, Kati G.; Hardy, Joanne and Chaney, Kristin P. 2021-01-15 Effectiveness of a digital interactive multimedia tutorial for preparing veterinary students to perform ultrasonography in horses Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 258(2):165-169
Higher-quality ultrasound images were obtained by veterinary students who had reviewed the DIMT [digital interactive multimedia tutorial] rather than the analogous information in textbook chapters. No difference in scores was identified between students in the lecture group and those in the DIMT group.
Decloedt, Annelies; Franco, Delphine; Martlé, Valentine; Baert, Alix; Verwulgen, An and Valcke, Martin 2021-06-01 Development of Surgical Competence in Veterinary Students Using a Flipped Classroom Approach Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 48(3):281-288
Flipped classroom CSL [clinical skills laboratory] training resulted in significantly higher self-efficacy (score/100, pre-test 55 ± 14 vs. post-test 83 ± 8, p< .001) and surgical skills performance (score/20, pre-test 5 ± 3 vs. post-test 17 ± 3, p< .001). In conclusion, this study demonstrated the feasibility and value of implementing a flipped classroom approach in combination with CSL training.
Dilly, Marc; Read, Emma K. and Baillie, Sarah 2017 A survey of established veterinary clinical skills laboratories from Europe and North America: Present practices and recent developments Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 44(4):580-589
The findings indicated that having a dedicated veterinary clinical skills laboratory is a relatively new initiative and that colleges have adopted a range of approaches to implementing and running the laboratory, teaching, and assessments. Major strengths were the motivation and positive characteristics of the staff involved, providing open access and supporting self-directed learning. … There is no doubt that veterinary clinical skills laboratories are on the increase and provide opportunities to enhance student learning, complement traditional training, and benefit animal welfare.
Eichel, Jane-Carolin; Korb, Werner; Schlenker, Antje; Bausch, Gerold; Brehm, Walter and Delling, Uta 2013 Evaluation of a training model to teach veterinary students a technique for injecting the jugular vein in horses Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 40(3):288-295
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The training model proved to be a useful tool to teach veterinary students how to perform jugular vein injections in horses in a controlled environment, without time limitations or animal welfare concerns. The newly developed training model offers an inexpensive, efficient, animal-sparing way to teach this clinical skill to veterinary students.
You may be able to obtain a copy of the paper from: ResearchGate
Ertelt, Katrin; Turkovic, Veljko and Moens, Yves 2016 Clinical practice of epidural puncture in dogs and cats assisted by a commercial acoustic puncture assist device–epidural locator: preliminary results Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 43(1):21-25
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The study results showed that the APAD-EL information supports the subjective signs of correct needle placement suggested by positive POP and LOR experienced by trained anesthetists. The technique can be useful to assist difficult epidural puncture and as a training and teaching tool.
You may be able to obtain a copy of the paper from: ResearchGate
Fahie, Maria; Cloke, Amanda; Lagman, Minette; Levi, Ohad and Schmidt, Peggy 2016 Training veterinary students to perform ovariectomy using theMOOSE Spay Model with traditional method versus the Dowling Spay Retractor Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 43(2):176-183
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This study endeavored to compare two methods of teaching OVE on a model based on assessment of procedure time and skill performance scores.
You may be able to obtain a copy of the paper from: ResearchGate
Fletcher, Daniel J.; Militello, Roberta; Schoeffler, Gretchen L. and Rogers, Catherine L. 2012 Development and evaluation of a high-fidelity canine patient simulator for veterinary clinical training Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 39(1):7-12.
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Fox, Victoria; Sinclair, Charlotte; Bolt, David M.; Lowe, John and Weller, Renate 2013 Design and validation of a simulator for equine joint injections Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 40(2):152-157
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Designing the Joint Injection Simulator … The bones that were used were from the forelimb of a skeletally mature Thoroughbred horse that had been euthanized for reasons unrelated to this study…The joint injection simulator represents an affordable teaching aid that allows students to repeatedly practice this skill in their own time with immediate feedback.
You may be able to obtain a copy of the paper from: ResearchGate
Fransson, Boel A.; Ragle, Claude A.; Mickas, Matthew M.; Martin, Kyle W. and Karn, Krystina N.L. 2023-06-01 Ability to Perform Laparoscopic Intra- and Extracorporeal Suture Ligations in a Live Canine Ovariectomy Model after Simulation Training Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 50(3):305-313
Extensive simulation training including suturing may contribute toward surgery residents being able to perform complex laparoscopic procedures.
French, Hilari M.; Dascanio, John D.; Peterson, Erik W.; Gilbert, Gregory E.; Wright, Christopher C.; Wickman, David D. and Bauman, Eric B. 2018 Development and student evaluation of an anatomically correct high-fidelity calf leg model Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 45(1):126-130
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One hundred and twenty pre-clinical veterinary students were instructed how to use obstetrical chains with a low-fidelity PVC model and the anatomically correct high-fidelity calf leg model. After a 45-minute lab, students were surveyed on their experience with both models. Overall students felt the anatomically correct high-fidelity calf leg model increased accuracy in chain placement and provided more accurate landmarks, a more realistic model, and more real-life scenario training.
Galle, Ursula and Bubna-Littitz, H. 1983 Modell zum Erlernen der Venenpunktionstechnik beim Hund Journal of Veterinary Medicine. A, Physiology, Pathology, Clinical Medicine 30(9):796-799
In German with English (and other language) summary.
Gates, M. Carolyn; Littlewood, Katherine E.; Kongara, Kavitha; Odom, Thomas F. and Sawicki, Robert K. 2020 Guidelines for implementing a low-cost volunteer desexing skills training program for veterinary and veterinary technology students Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 47(1):27-38
At the Massey University School of Veterinary Science, we recently established an innovative extracurricular volunteer program designed to have students teaching other students how to perform different elements of desexing procedures as they progress through their degree.
Giusto, Gessica; Comino, Francesco and Gandini, Marco 2015 Validation of an effective, easy-to-make hemostasis simulator Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 42(1):85-88
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After adequate training, students’ skills had significantly improved, alongside their confidence in placing hemostatic sutures. This proves our model is also useful in teaching basic open-surgery skills. Finally, its low production cost makes it ideally suited for self-practice.
Goldschmidt, Stephanie L. and Kustritz, Margaret V. Root 2022-06-01 Pilot Study Evaluating the Use of Typodonts (Dental Models) for Teaching Veterinary Dentistry as Part of the Core Veterinary Curriculum Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 49(3):340-345
Ninety-six percent of students reported that practice with the dental typodont prior to the cadaver laboratory increased their comfort level in performing periodontal skills. However, practice did not result in a significant decrease in knowledge gap compared with participation in the cadaver laboratory alone. Although students perceived a benefit to practicing with the typodont, self-guided practice was not effective in decreasing the knowledge gap, most likely due to a lack of structured feedback with typodont use. Further investigation into the use of typodonts with direct feedback prior to structured laboratory or, alternatively, as an additional practice tool following a structured laboratory would further define if there is a benefit to typodont practice in veterinary dentistry.
…we have developed a reusable synthetic canine thorax model that accurately replicates the thoracocentesis procedure, provides immediate feedback to the students and reduces the need for canine cadavers. The low cost of our product provides an efficient alternative to cadavers for instruction in veterinary schools or hospitals.
Our innovative emergency-procedures laboratory enables students to acquire a high degree of proficiency, in a realistic setting, with focused, controlled instruction and practice, replicable in schools with or without emergency/critical care facilities.
- Although the study was done on students in human medical school, the principles would apply to veterinary medical students.
- The authors found DASIE to be an effective alternative for preparing students for live surgery. It was well received by the students.
The canine castration model facilitated cost-efficient practice in a safe environment in which students received instructor feedback and learned through experience without the risk of negatively affecting a patient’s well-being. The strong correlation between model and live animal performance scores suggests that the model could be useful for mastery learning.
The purpose of this study was to determine if a recently developed cadaveric canine model was an effective tool for teaching arthrocentesis to fourth-year veterinary students. … In both phases of the study, the participants were able to aspirate a measurable volume of fluid from the joints of the model. Participants recorded an increase in confidence with arthrocentesis after using the model in the first phase of the study and unanimously supported inclusion of the exercise in future teaching situations.
Experts approved all models for teaching, but recommended the 3D skull or full head model if student skills were to be assessed. Low-fidelity models remain effective training tools with comparable learning outcomes.
These data support validation of the simulated OVH rubric.
During the COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdowns, a VetPAL project was designed harnessing structured Peer-Assessment Learning (PAL). … Materials and models were mailed to students so they could practice in their home settings. … Challenges in teaching digitally were overcome by providing video content and “how-to” tutorials to ensure students achieved the best learning opportunity with the digital devices they had at their disposal (eg, 2 camera set-ups, different view and focusing possibilities, alternative model creation from domestic materials). Students set up 2 devices with cameras, 1 focused on the equipment and 1 focused on themselves, to ensure their skills could be viewed, assessed and constructive feedback given whilst continuing to interact socially. The COVID lockdowns meant that VetPAL also provided a valuable opportunity for enjoyable student-driven practice of basic clinical skills outside of the academic timetable, in an informal and low-pressure setting. Many students attested to it being a very helpful way to reach out to peers in isolating times. Due to the success of the online VetPAL sessions, the same format was used for timetabled practical classes during lockdowns. The Clinical Skills Centre is a resource in high demand for core practical classes and ad hoc self-directed practice by students.
A prospective mixed-methods study was undertaken to evaluate student perceptions and performance outcomes with self-assessment using video- or instructor-delivered feedback during skills training using a model. Forty participants naïve to intravenous (IV) catheter placement were randomly assigned either to self-assessment using video or to instructor-directed feedback. … Self-reported confidence in knowledge and skill related to the IV catheterization technique improved with both self-directed feedback using video and instructor-directed feedback. Skill performance, however, was superior following instructor-directed feedback. Participants expressed positive experiences associated with use of the models for skills training, the value of the learning materials including the video, and guidance during learning.
The findings indicate that the haptic simulator is an engaging way of teaching bovine abdominal anatomy to a large number of students in an efficient manner without using cadavers, thereby addressing some of the current challenges in anatomy teaching.
- Although this involves training in human medical school, the principles are applicable to veterinary medical school.
This paper presents a new approach to basic surgical skills training, where tuition using a specially designed computer program is combined with structured practice using simulated tissue models. This approach to teaching has evolved from practical experience with surgical skills training in workshops. … Qualitative analysis of observational and interview data provides strong preliminary support for the effectiveness of this approach.
In conclusion, low-fidelity models are useful educational tools in preparation for live animal surgery. However, there are specific features to take into account when developing models in order for students to perceive them as useful.
- Obtain a copy from: ResearchGate
The intervention group showed a significantly better performance and needed significantly less help with the surgical complication than the control group students. … Our study results thus indicate that an educational tool which stimulates creative thinking can promote reflection, creativity, and self-efficacy in novice surgeons without compromising surgical performance.
In conclusion, this study validated the use of the CSF simulator as an educational tool that can help students overcome some of their anxiety in relation to performing an invasive procedure.
Final-year veterinary students do not master intravenous catheterization in the emergency room setting, and additional studies are required to improve clinical instruction in this area.
Because veterinary surgeons may be required to treat patients in various positions, development of laparoscopic training models to simulate the vertical plane is recommended.
The results suggest that playing Marble Mania on a Wii for any time duration could be an effective method for veterinary medicine students to improve basic laparoscopic skills, and indicate the needs for additional studies.
To construct the simulators, donated cat kidneys were embedded in a prepared agar matrix. … Appropriate anatomical and ultrasonographic realism was achieved for each of the three layers of the kidney (cortex, medulla and pelvis), and similar pixel values were obtained with the simulator model and actual clinical diagnostic ultrasounds. In addition, the kidney dimensions acquired by the students were consistent with those acquired by the lecturers. Thus, the proposed kidney simulator can be used for the training of veterinary medicine students in ultrasonographic diagnostic techniques.
All students identified a model as a potentially valuable learning tool to supplement existing teaching methods and facilitate the acquisition of small-animal dentistry skills. The dental model has the potential to equip students with useful, practical skills in a safe and risk-free environment.
A spay simulator was developed to provide veterinary students at the University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine a reusable, inexpensive, and error-enabled device for self-practice in anticipation of a live canine ovariohysterectomy. … The results of this study demonstrate that this low-fidelity spay simulator has a unique place in student surgical training, producing novice surgeons with increased perceived competence and knowledge of anatomy following spay simulation training and live animal surgery.
This article reports the development of a novel cadaveric model for future use in teaching arthrocentesis. … Objectives of the study were to develop and compare a model to an unmodified cadaver by injecting one of two types of fluids to increase yield.
…we demonstrate the validity of a novel, low-cost, and anatomically precise simulator that can be used for teaching CSF sampling at the LSS [lumbar subarachnoid space].
Though it is unlikely that iVR will ever fully replace hands-on learning experiences, it presents an educational opportunity to supplement traditional learning methods, motivate students, and fill information gaps. As iVR technology continues to evolve and improve, potential applications in the veterinary curriculum grow, making the modality’s use progressively more advantageous. Although this study describes its application in an orthopedic setting, the versatility of the iVR modality lends the potential for it to be implemented in a number of clinical and didactic settings.
The VRET [virtual-reality endoscopy trainer] was less stressful for participants than the LDL [live dog laboratory] (p = .02). All participants found that the VRET was a useful and acceptable alternative to the LDL for training of early endoscopy skills. Based on this limited study, VRET can serve as a reasonable alternative to LDL for teaching endoscopy skills to veterinarians.
We conclude that the human patient simulator was a valuable learning tool for students of veterinary medicine. It was exciting for the students to work with this simulator, which made them deal with ‘real-life’ scenarios, permitted them to learn without subjecting live patients to complications, enabled them to retrace their steps when their therapy did not correct the simulated patient’s problems, and facilitated correlation of their basic science knowledge with clinical data, thus accelerating their ability to handle complex clinical problems in healthy and diseased patients.
- Describes in detail the technique of fabricating polyurethane ‘bones’ and advocates them as an inexpensive means of teaching surgical skills. Human bones from cadavers are used as templates for the mold. Although the artificial bones can be obtained commercially, the authors contend that they are cheaper and more instructive when made by staff members.
- Obtain a copy from: ResearchGate
Overall, the results indicate that simulator training in veterinary education can be effective for knowledge and clinical skill outcomes.
- Obtain a copy from: ResearchGate
Use of the simulator appeared to be a viable alternative to use of FFCCs [fresh-frozen canine cadavers] for veterinary endoscopic training, providing students with a good level of proficiency before performing endoscopic procedures on live dogs.
The use of this low-cost simulator represents a useful didactic tool, which supports the acquisition and practise of manual skills by using methods that do not involve the use of animals. In addition, this training simulator could be useful in distance learning, in view of the ready accessibility of the materials required for its construction.
- They used polyethylene foam strip to simulate a tendon.
Simulation models thus were effective for learning [Fine Needle Aspiration], but the box simulator seemed to be more successful than the fruit in terms of deliberate practice. This appears to have a positive effect on students’ puncturing accuracy, which has clinical relevance.
In 2020, we introduced a series of immersive simulation practicals in CPR, consulting, euthanasia, and disaster response (a road traffic collision) to allow acquaintance with clinical practice before starting hospital rotations. These practicals allow students to drill clinical scenarios with no risk to real patients while facilitating an opportunity to reflect upon and improve performance. Initial evaluation of this teaching has shown improved procedural skills, situational awareness, clinical reasoning, metacognition, and reflective practice.
This study suggests that deconstructing the practical skills into microskills and tuition of those microskills via the separated structured educational stations is effective according to the students’ self-ratings.
A simulator model of a cow and calf was developed at the UCVM [University of Calgary Faculty of Veterinary Medicine] to teach bovine dystocia correction. [Veterinary Simulator Industries www.vetsimulators.com]
Results suggested that training with a lower-fidelity/cost model might be as effective when compared to a higher-fidelity/cost model.
- Obtain a copy from: ResearchGate
- Evaluated the Alpaca Venipuncture/Catheterization Model.
The jugular venipuncture alpaca model failed to improve jugular venipuncture skills in this student population. Lack of movement represents a significant weakness of this training model.
Students who practiced with a larynx model took fewer attempts to perform EI [endotracheal intubation], tended to be faster, and found that EI was easier. However, the EI success rate in MT [model training] was not improved.
Incorporation of the 3D animations and interactive models significantly increased students’ scores on essay questions designed to assess their comprehension of the subject matter. This approach to education may help to better prepare students for dealing with obstetrical cases during their final clinical year and after graduation.
Students generally preferred practice sessions with some form of instructor involvement but the importance of instructor guidance was rated differently at each individual learning station.
This simulator offers undergraduate students an alternative way to learn and practice venipuncture in cats helping to reduce the use of live animals in practical classes.
- The authors developed a simple device to contain fresh organ material (obtained from the necropsy lab) which could be used by students to practice fine needle aspiration.
Fresh organs were collected from the hospital necropsy laboratory.
- This study was to determine if an inexpensive hemostasis model improved a student’s blood vessel ligation skills when faced with live animal surgery.
- Although the students using the simulator prior to animals did not appear to have more confidence, it seemed that the overall results were similar to students using animals only.
This AT [autotutorial]/simulator program evidently does not significantly influence students overall gastrotomy closure technique versus traditional instruction methods. Several factors may help explain these results. The hollow organ model did not satisfactorily simulate live stomach tissue; the material was more fragile and stiff and suture cut-out was a problem even with appropriate suture tension and technique. Despite these obstacles, however, the model combined with AT instruction was effective for teaching several important aspects of gastrotomy closure, including needle placement. instrument usage, proper tissue inversion, and methods to minimize instrument handling of tissue.
The model is inexpensive and efficient and allows for technique development and immediate instructor assessment and feedback.
In this study, two three-dimensional canine pelvic limb models were developed: one simulating a normal stifle and one simulating CCLR [canine cranial cruciate ligament rupture]. … Participant response indicated that while the tested model was effective and desirable, an ideal model would be more durable and lifelike.
Including this type of knot [Aberdeen knots] in surgical skills curriculum for novices may be beneficial.
This article reports on the face, content, and construct validity of a new realistic composite simulator (Simuldog) used to provide training in canine gastrointestinal flexible endoscopy. The basic endoscopic procedures performed on the simulator were esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD), gastric biopsy (GB), and gastric foreign body removal (FBR). … Simuldog is the first validated model specifically developed to be used as a training tool for endoscopy techniques in small animals.
The Canine Laparoscopic Simulator (CLS) for laparoscopic training was developed based on the working and optical space obtained from computed tomography (CT) scan images of three Beagle dogs. … They perceived it to be a good training tool, and these results suggest that CLS is an engaging tool for education but still has some limitations inherent in training boxes. Further studies would be needed to establish the validity of training programs performed in the CLS.
- Obtain a copy from: ResearchGate
- This is a document illustrating their skills program. No indication if the items illustrated are available commercially, but one could try contacting the authors at Utrecht University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine to learn more.
This teaching method can be effectively used to teach students to place and tie a simple interrupted stitch. Once validated and expanded, it may prove useful in shortening and standardizing procedural skill training and in objectively documenting competency.
This study’s results support the validation of this ultrasound simulation model and may demonstrate early evidence for its use as a training tool in the veterinary curriculum to teach entry-level ultrasound skills.
The present report highlights the value of providing veterinary students with a smartphone-associated Butterfly iQ point-of-care ultrasound during a 3-week self-driven virtual clerkship. During the virtual rotation, the student was able to develop the skills required to generate sufficient quality images using three horses residing on her property. The affordability, portability, ease of use of the Butterfly iQ and availability of animals made it possible to develop hands-on imaging skills when distance learning was required.
- Obtain a copy from: ResearchGate
Veterinarians (n=7) found this low-fidelity model acceptable and supported its use as a training tool for veterinary students. Students reported in a post-lab survey that they felt models were as helpful as cadavers for learning the procedures. These results support the use of the model as a component of first-year veterinary student curriculum.
- Obtain a copy from: ResearchGate
The acquisition of surgical skills required to perform celiotomy closure in companion animals occurs similarly well on models made of foam and fabric or of silicone, providing flexibility in model selection.
These results suggest that students accept either instructional method, but most instructors prefer to be assigned to a small group of students. Surgical skills were learned similarly well by students in both groups, although assigned instructors were more accurate at identifying at-risk students, which could prove beneficial if early intervention measures can be offered.
- One alternative discussed and illustrated here is the University of Sydney Faculty of Veterinary Science’s ovariohysterectomy simulator model. This was being developed by Studio Kite, 71 Walkers Lane, The Pocket, NSW 2483 Australia; phone: +61 2 6684 5181; Web: http://www.studiokite.com/.
Results suggested that attendance in the OCSL sessions was associated with improvements in surgical performance, as reflected in faster total surgery and incision closure times while performing an ovariohysterectomy during the third-year surgery course.
Updated 2023-12-02